Jurgen Habermas represents the second wave of Critical Theory. He was not a contemporary of the other members of the Frankfurt school However, he is included in the school of thought because his work continues the critique that the others began. Habermas has written more, and added more to Marxist theory that all the other members of the Frankfurt school. In his work Towards Reconstructing Historical Materialism, Habermas laid out his primary differences with Marx.

Habermas’s primary difficulty with society is that in modern society human beings lack freedom. His primary difficulty with Marxism is that it fails to consider the scope of this lack of freedom. According to Habermas, Marx leaves out the human element. Marx assessment of human evolution as just an economic progression is far too narrow for Habermas. Jurgen asserts that it is societies that evolve economically, instead of the species, he goes on to say that Historical Materialism assumes a learning process. For Habermas, this process becomes a dynamic element in the move from one epoch to another. Where Marx supposed the move to be linear (one step at a time in a straight line), and deterministic, (with a known end), Habermas said it was unpredictable.

Habermas almost completely eliminated the notions of revolution and class struggle from the theory. Instead of these, he introduces the concept of crisis. The crisis is that modern society is not meeting individual needs and that institutions in society are manipulating individuals. People interact to respond to this crisis and Habermas calls this interaction Communicative Action. Habermas adapted Horkheimer’s definition of reason as rationality, then, combines it with the relation based activities that results when humans agree. Communicative action, it is the one type of action, that Habermas says uses all human ways of thinking, and language. This combination allows human beings to understand and agree with one another, to make plans for common action. This coming together and agreeing; communicative action, takes the place of revolution as mode of change. According to Habermas the move from Capitalism to Communism, (if it occurs), will occur as a result of reason and communicative action.

Habermas adds the methodology of psychology and linguistics to his critique, and attempts to move the analysis of Marxism to Social Scientific inquiry. As far a solution, Habermas’s approach offers the process of Communicative Action as the solution. He implies that implementing his theory, and analyzing it will address the ills created by modern society. On the whole, Habermas’s contribution to the Frankfurt school is significant to say the least. It will undoubtedly be revisited as the philosophical conversation continues.

what is the nuclear programme?

Q:islamic republic government frequently mention the significant and useful consequences of nuclear energy for iranian people,what are these advantages for iranian people who even can't be sure of being alive in the near future according to unexpected and permanent economic crisis,political suppression and social insecurity?!

they say "nuclear energy is iranian's indisputable right".

Q:who determine this right? do people have any rights at all in an authoritarian regime like islamic republic of iran?!!
and if people them selves have the right to determine policies which are more useful for them,they would say "we don't need nuclear energy now,maybe in the future after our fundamental problems are resolved and after our primary needs are achieved , we don't want another war either."

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.

Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.

In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.

The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.

Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinct feature: it has simplified class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other — bourgeoisie and proletariat.

Manifesto of the Communist Party

I love a girl.she is cute and extraordinary.she could be the art it self if she would not be forced to live as a human being.I am not a normal man or maybe I try not to be normal,for it is the main aim of my life(being unique and different from laymen).one could say uniqueness is our common characteristic.it is true but there are lots of differences.I love these differences.however as an intellectual,I don't have the ability to discover her inner emotions and incentives ,ofcourse if they are discoverable!!!
NO IDEA,,,

democracy is a concept which conveys specific meanings and symbols.these meanings are universal and permanent in all over the world,but not in the divine island of iran(islamic republic of)!!!.
then according to this distinct reality,a new creature emerges the so called "religious democracy"?! as paradoxical as "islamic republic".in this kind of democracy which is obviously based on religious and specifically islamic rules,one can find anything but democracy.the clergy monarch which is called"valiye faqih" is the dominant authority in the country and some quasi-democratic institutions like "islamic parliament" , "city councils" and even "state(president)" should be concerned as formal elements of the government which are all subject to the predominant power of the leader(valiye faqih).